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Instruction
Overview Of the 64 reviews, 18 fit the category of Instruction. Spanning almost four decades, from 1967 to 2003, these articles reveal some interesting trends in the research literature. Concerning instruction in general: Children need to be intellectually, physically, socially, and emotionally prepared to read. Children enter reading instruction at different levels of reading readiness, but no child enters instruction a “blank slate.” Direct instruction in spelling helps children learn to read. Evidence does not support the use of incentives to encourage reading. Using research-based principles to guide instructional program selection is important, but not enough—assessment of program success is also necessary to ensure effectiveness. Overall, quality teaching needs to be supported by effective school governance. And with regards to remedial reading programs: Quality of tutoring matters more than quantity. One-to-one tutoring seems most effective, although there is some debate over whether small group tutoring is equally successful. Some children still struggle with reading even when given early literacy support that is successful for most of their peers, and these children share some characteristics, such as a general inability to recognise and/or remember the sounds of spoken words, or demonstration of problem behaviours. Taken as a whole, corrective reading programs are important to help all children achieve reading success. Substantial agreement between researchers exists on a few general issues, including (1) literacy development as a phase in the child's overall course of development; (2) the negative effects of early reading difficulties; (3) the importance of early, structured reading instruction; and (4) the importance of early word identification skills and the ability to analyse and synthesize the sounds of spoken language. Much less consensus exists concerning teaching methods, the best age at which to begin formal reading instruction, and how to prevent reading difficulties. Additionally, there has been little focus on the use of new technology to promote literacy skills. Finally, it should be noted that many of the 46 reviews listed under other categories of the Catalogue also discussed instructional practices, but did so in the context of specific issues of literacy. The category of Phonics & Whole Language, in particular, should also be consulted. Al Otaiba, S., & Fuchs, D. (2002). Characteristics of children who are unresponsive to early literacy intervention: A review of the literature. Remedial & Special Education, 23(5), 300-316. Some children still struggle with reading even when given the same early literacy support that is successful for most of their peers. The majority of children who do not respond well to literacy instruction have problems recognising and/or remembering the sounds of spoken words. Other factors such as attention and behaviour problems, the child’s social background, and problems related to intelligence and thinking are also characteristic of children who have literacy difficulties. Reading instruction and future research should both be better directed towards identifying and meeting the needs of children who do not do well in existing reading programs, for whatever reason.
Chacko, C. (1967). A review of research in reading readiness. Indian Educational Review, 2(1), 1-25.
Reading is a complex activity that integrates various physical and mental abilities. Overall, children’s readiness for reading is not necessarily related to age, but rather to their development in certain areas. They need to have appropriate vision and hearing levels (or have learned to deal with vision and hearing disabilities), be intellectually prepared, recognize and use a wide range of words when they speak with others, be emotionally and socially adjusted, and have a substantial amount of experience with the world around them to aid in reading comprehension.
Elbaum, B, Vaughn, S., Hughes, M. T., & Moody, S. W. (2000). How effective are one-to-one tutoring programs in reading for elementary students at risk for reading failure? A meta-analysis of the intervention research. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(4), 605-619.
One-to-one tutoring can aid many students whose poor reading places them at risk for academic difficulties, if it is well-designed and effectively implemented. But it seems that tutoring children in small groups of 2 to 5 students can be just as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Moreover, the quality of the tutoring matters more than its duration. Schools are encouraged to consider implementing tutoring by trained college students and volunteers to provide successful and cost-effective supplements to classroom instruction.
Good, R. H., Simmons, D. C., & Smith, S. B. (1998). Effective academic interventions in the United States: Evaluating and enhancing the acquisition of early reading skills. Educational and Child Psychology, 15(1), 56-70.
Students who show poor early reading skills are likely to continue as poor readers, with the gap between poor readers and good readers increasing as time goes on. This points to the need for early intervention. Children at risk for reading problems need early identification and a reading intervention strategy that works. Reading programs should be evidence-based, and reading assessment and monitoring of reading skills should be tied to reading instruction. In particular, the authors recommend phonological awareness training (training in the ability to recognize the sounds that make up spoken language) as central to providing effective early literacy intervention.
Haskins, G.V. (1997). The spelling/reading connection: How do we achieve it? The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 63(4), 15-20. Learning to spell helps children to learn to read. Direct instruction in spelling patterns enhances word recognition and comprehension skills. Multi-sensory instruction (hearing, saying, writing, and seeing) has also been shown to be successful in improving reading achievement. The author proposes a method of spelling/reading instruction that incorporates phonics and follows a “sounds,” “letter strings,” and “meaning units” order of instruction.
King, E. M. (1978). Prereading programs: Direct versus incidental teaching. Reading Teacher, 51(5), 504-510.
Learning to read is too crucial to be left to incidental learning, especially in the case of at-risk children. However, direct teaching methods should never become so formal and prescribed that children lose interest in or become frustrated with learning. Overall, teachers are encouraged to balance both incidental and direct teaching, providing instruction tailored specifically to meet the needs of their students.
Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2003). New technologies in early childhood literacy research: A review of research. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 3(1), 59-82.
Research on the use of new technologies (e.g. computers, word-processing software, the internet, etc.) in promoting the literacy development of children 0-8 years old is scarce. Sorting the small amount of research available shows that there is an emphasis on learning to read and understand text and not on writing and generating text. . As well, most of the research is concerned with the role of new technologies in learner outcomes, with a lack of focus on teacher roles. Overall, there is a research gap concerning how new technologies could (and should) be used to prepare children for a future in which literacy will play a much different role than it has in the past.
Malmquist, E. (1975). An international overview of primary reading practices. Journal of Reading, 18(8), 615-624.
An overview of literacy research worldwide shows substantial agreement between researchers on a few general issues: (1) The development of reading ability is viewed as a phase in the child's total development process; (2) difficulties in the early stages of learning to read may negatively affect the child's behaviour and personality development; (3) early reading instruction is important. Much less international consensus exists concerning teaching methods, the best age at which to begin formal reading instruction, and how to prevent reading difficulties. Overall, there is a great need for studies comparing, across countries, different methods of reading instruction and the effects of varying ages of school entrance/beginning formal reading instruction. The author comments that the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement cross-national study planned for fifteen countries may be able to fill this need.
McQuillan, J. (1997). The effects of incentives on reading. Reading Research & Instruction, 36(2), 111-125.
The practice of rewarding reading is intended to increase the frequency and level of children’s reading. However, psychology research suggests that such rewards could actually lead children to read less frequently in the long-term. Indeed, a review of the relevant research shows no clear relationship between the use of rewards and improvements in reading comprehension, vocabulary, or reading habits. Overall, teachers and librarians need to be cautious about using rewards to encourage reading, and should consider the possibility that devoting money to books rather than to rewards might actually prove to be more beneficial in the long run.
Nelson, J. R., Gregory, J. B., & Gonzalez, J. (2002). Learner characteristics that influence the treatment effectiveness of early literacy interventions: A meta-analytic review. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(4), 255-267.
Some children still struggle with reading even when given the same early literacy support that is successful for most of their peers. Children who do not respond well to literacy instruction often have problems recognising, remembering, and/or processing the sounds of spoken words. In addition, they often show behaviour problems, may have difficulty associating sounds with letters, and may have poor intellectual and memory skills. The authors call for more research identifying characteristics of children who do not benefit sufficiently from literacy interventions. Future researchers should take special care to record the details of the interventions used and the children studied.
Pearson, P. D. (1993). Teaching and learning reading: A research perspective (Focus on Research). Language Arts, 70(6), 502-511.
Is a child-centered reading program better than a traditional reading curriculum for all students? Is it better to emphasize sound-letter relationships in reading instruction, or to use literature and reading and writing activities? Regardless of the reading curriculum, there is widespread agreement that early word identification skills, and the ability to analyse and synthesize the sounds of spoken language are critical for literacy development. Nevertheless and despite the large amount of research on reading instruction there is disagreement and gaps in knowledge on both these and other issues. Why do some students succeed while others fail, regardless of the type of instruction provided? Why do some programs developed to help struggling students actually hurt their progress? Are these programs only slightly-altered versions of reading instruction that has already failed to help them? Future research should be directed at answering these questions.
Rupley, W. H., & Blair, T. R. (1975). Early reading: Teachers and Parents. Reading Teacher, 28(7), 716-717; 719.
Teachers of early reading need to know reading research findings so that they can make informed decisions concerning their approach to reading instruction. They need to know that children enter school at different levels of reading readiness and thus require different levels of instruction. There are no guaranteed procedures for teaching children to read. The home environment also plays a crucial role in children’s reading development, and parents too need to know how they can support their child’s reading development through activities such as reading games, singing, storytelling, and reading aloud.
Schumm, J.S., Vaughn, S., Haager, D., & Klingner, J.K. (1994). Literacy instruction for mainstreamed students: what suggestions are provided in basal reading series? Remedial and Special Education, 15(1), 14-20.
Many elementary school classrooms use “basal reading instruction” to teach literacy. Basal reading instruction stresses the use of special “basal readers” (texts written specifically to teach certain reading skills), class-wide teacher-assigned tasks, and substantial instruction in isolated skill sets. However, basal reading resources are not reflecting the needs of general education classroom teachers who are increasingly responsible for the education of students with special learning needs. An analysis of 6 widely used basal reading programs showed that limited suggestions and materials are provided to assist teachers in implementing literacy instruction for mainstreamed special education students. Teachers must be equipped to accommodate the needs of all learners, if not from the basal reading resources available, then from professional development training.
Smith, S. L. (1973). Ten years of research on corrective reading programs: A review of the literature. Reading Horizons, 13(4), 173-182.
Remedial reading programs can be effective at all grade levels, but success seems to come easier to younger students. Individual remedial reading instruction tends to give better results than group instruction, particularly in the early elementary grades. However, regardless of the number of students receiving the remedial instruction, individual differences need to be taken into account. Intensive short-term programs do show positive results, but outcomes tend to be better if continued support is provided after the intensive treatment period. Overall, corrective reading programs are essential to helping all children achieve reading success, and should continue to be developed and implemented in elementary and high schools.
Stuart, M. (1995). Through printed words to meaning: Issues of transparency. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 126-131.
The ability to recognize and focus on the sounds that make up spoken language is consistently associated with children’s development of reading skills. Knowledge about the spoken forms of words helps children to better understand print-sound connections, allowing them to perform better at word recognition and to learn new vocabulary faster. Further, knowledge about the spoken forms of words also positively affects the expectancies of children about what words will look like once written down. Overall, just providing a literate environment is not enough. Structured teaching is essential to help all children achieve success in reading. Children should be engaged in activities and games to help them develop an awareness of the sounds, structure, and function of spoken language and the alphabet. Teachers should also be proactive in using children’s levels of understanding of spoken language to identify those who may face reading difficulties.
Wasik, B.A. (1998). Volunteer tutoring programs in reading: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 33(3), 266-291.
Though limited in scope, research into the effects of one-to-one volunteer tutoring seems to support its value. Generally, the quality of the tutoring is more important than the quantity. Specific guidelines for effective tutoring include (1) a knowledgeable coordinator who provides expert guidance to the tutors; (2) structure in the lessons; (3) tutor training; and (4) coordination between classroom instruction and the tutoring program.
Whitehurst, G.J., & Lonigan, C.J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69(3), 848-872.
Preschool children learn about reading and writing even without formal instruction. They may acquire basic knowledge of vocabulary, letters, and text, and learn something about the structure of language, sentences, and stories. These pre-reading skills directly foster their future literacy development. Certain aspects of the home environment, such as shared reading, benefit children’s language development. Other preschool environments, such as childcare, can also have positive effects. Children from low-income environments that lack opportunities for acquiring pre-reading skills can suffer later reading problems and delays in the development of language skills. Fortunately, existing data support the use of a number of interventions to enhance early language and literacy-related skills during the preschool period. Overall, the use of multi-faceted, developmentally appropriate interventions is advocated, and computer-based interventions are seen as promising. However, research is needed to determine the long-term effects of the interventions.
Wohlstetter, P., & Malloy, C.L. (2001). Organizing for literacy achievement: using school governance to improve classroom practice. Education and Urban Society, 34(1), 42-65.
What can schools do to promote the literacy achievements of their students? Quality teaching is important, but alone is not enough. Overall, it is essential that the school organization support quality instructional programs. High-performing schools achieve this through a shared vision about learning and teaching that guides decision-making, while bringing together the different stakeholders and encouraging them to take active roles in school reform.
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